Augustus’s death in CE 14 ended one of the most remarkable lives in Roman history. Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE, he was adopted posthumously by Julius Caesar as his son and chief heir. After Julius Caesar’s assassination in 44 BCE, he formed an alliance with Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, hunted down Caesar’s assassins, and divided control of the Republic. Eventually, however, he assumed sole power by sidelining Lepidus and defeating the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.
As sole ruler, Caesar Augustus brought peace (“Pax Romana”) to the Roman world. He expanded the empire’s borders into Europe and Asia Minor, assumed control over Armenia, completed the conquest of Spain, and annexed Mauretania, Central Asia Minor, and the areas still controlled by the Alpine Gauls. He established the Praetorian Guard as a permanent standing army and built a strong navy, effectively making the Mediterranean a Roman sea, Mare Nostrum. He expanded trade and used Egypt’s grain to feed the city of Rome. He reformed the monetary system, the calendar, the civil service, taxation, coinage, the postal service, and education, ushering in the glorious period marked by the works of Virgil, Horace, Livy, Ovid, and many others.
In 27 BCE, he nominally restored the Republic of Rome and instituted a series of constitutional reforms. He carefully managed his public image, avoiding the title of king because he knew the Romans strongly opposed monarchy. Instead, he was called “princeps,” or “first citizen.” Granted the honorific title Augustus, he was appointed tribune and proconsul for life, making his person sacrosanct and his veto absolute. In effect, he wielded more power than a king while preserving the outward forms of republican government. His reign spanned over four decades, and his rule brought peace, order, and prosperity.
By AD 14, Augustus was seventy-five years old and had grown weak with age and illness. In his Annals, Tacitus briefly notes that “some suspect[ed] guilt on his wife’s part” in the worsening of his condition. He spent his final days in Nola, a town in southern Italy, and because his death came gradually, he had time to reflect on his life and rule. According to Suetonius, he called for a mirror, had his hair combed, and had “his failing jaws set straight.” He then asked those at his bedside whether they thought he had played his part well.
Since I’ve played well, with joy your voices raise,
And from the stage dismiss me with your praise.
Another famous statement attributed to Augustus is his boast: “I found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble.” He took credit for the transformation he brought to Rome, which he rebuilt on a grand scale, making it worthy of ruling the world. His deathbed conversations also reveal his concern for succession and stability. Augustus knew that Rome’s peace depended on a smooth transfer of power, so he ensured that his adopted son Tiberius would succeed him.
Augustus clearly viewed his many years of leadership as a success, both as a political reality and a public performance. He understood that power depended on public perception, and he balanced modesty with absolute authority. Unlike many tragic rulers destroyed by madness or violence, he died peacefully after decades marked by political insight and dramatic flair, having shaped the image he wanted future generations to remember. He died as a ruler who believed he had completed his task by transforming Rome from a republic torn by civil war into an empire that would endure for centuries.