The word organic in the context of chemistry refers to a substance built around a skeleton of carbon (unlike an inorganic substance that most often has no carbon in its formula.) In the world of food, however, organic means that the produce was grown under “natural” conditions, without antibiotics, growth hormones, pesticides, fertilizers, sewage sludge, genetic modification, bioengineering, or ionizing radiation. In many countries, organic requires formal certification by a designated authority or person, rather like with religious rules for kosher or halal.

Since ancient times, civilizations have grown their food with at least some respect for the soil and the environment. They used techniques such as crop rotation and pest control, demonstrating an early understanding of the need for ecological balance. The Incas of South America, for example, terraced their mountainous terrain to prevent soil erosion and to optimize crop growth. Likewise, the Mayan civilization in Mesoamerica employed complex agricultural systems that were in harmony with nature. These early practices form the historical roots of the modern organic food movement, connecting it to a long-standing tradition of sustainable farming.

Modern concerns about the environment can be traced to the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1911, the American agricultural scientist Franklin H. King drew attention in his book Farmers of Forty Centuries to soil depletion induced by chemical fertilizers and faulty sewage disposal. Sir Albert Howard, an English botanist in India, wrote An Agricultural Testament extolling the Indian sustainable techniques of agriculture (1940). In 1940, J.I. Rodale and his wife bought a run-down, 63-acre Pennsylvania farm and conducted one of the earliest experiments on organic agriculture. Lady Eve Balfour, born into one of Britain’s most important political families, founded the Soil Association in 1946 following the publication of her best-selling book The Living Soil about her love for farming and the land.

The term organic food was coined in 1940 by the English naturalist Walter James, Fourth Lord Northbourne, a former competitor in the 1920 Summer Olympics who in his book Look to the Land advocated less harmful methods of keeping insects, disease, and weeds out of food. In 1962, Rachel Carson likewise addressed the effects of DDT and other pesticides on humans, wildlife, and the environment in her book Silent Spring.

These pioneers and their successors promoted the use of low toxicity non-synthetic pesticides that do not harm humans or animals and favor environmentally friendly techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting. Their cause was taken up in the 1970s by a growing segment of the public, fueling the growth of the organic farming industry and sparking a global movement. Original concerns centered on the use of antibiotics in animal feeds and on the inhumane way of raising chickens. Other issues later became popular under the banner of organic food, acquiring millions of converts, particularly in the United States and Germany. As the movement and the global market grew exponentially, governments began to regulate how food was to be prepared for consumption. Organic food was also deemed to be healthier, offer more humane conditions for raising animals, combat climate change, use less energy, and produce less waste.

This new approach, however, was not without its skeptics and critics. Organic farming does indeed have its drawbacks. It produces lower yields, is more expensive, has higher labor costs, and requires costly certification. Organic fruit and vegetables, for example, spoil more quickly because they contain no preservatives and are not irradiated. Neither convincing evidence nor well-conducted studies have shown that organic foods offer substantial health benefits, are safer, or prevent illness. The subject is likely to continue to be hotly debated.