The Vikings raided Europe for more than 300 years, beginning with their attack on the Northumbrian monastery at Lindisfarne in 793 which caused horror across the continent. They came from Scandinavia, where local communities had lived by farming, fishing, and local trade, but where scarce arable land, political rivalries, and a tradition of seafaring all contributed to their outward expansion into Ireland, France, Iberia, the Mediterranean, and later Britain. The Vikings were not just raiders—they were settlers, explorers, and founders of new political systems. To this day, scholars are still reconstructing a surprisingly detailed picture of their lives in Scandinavia and in the areas where they later settled, such as Normandy, Sicily, and parts of Italy, Greece, Russia, and Ukraine. Scholars are also studying many aspects of their health by examining archaeological findings and skeletal remains.
The Vikings appear to have been reasonably healthy. The men averaged 5’7″–5’9″, which was relatively tall for the period; the women were slightly shorter. Most Vikings seem to have been adequately nourished. Their diet primarily consisted of fish, herring and cod, as well as domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and pigs. They also consumed dairy products, barley, rye, berries, and nuts. Coastal populations could also have high marine protein diets. Skeletal remains indicate evidence of occasional nutritional deficiencies such as iron-deficiency anemia.
Viking society had no physicians in the formal sense, but certain individuals, women in particular, were respected healers. They tended to the wounded after battles, cleaned injuries, and applied remedies. Some specialization existed—saga accounts mention healers who were especially skilled at removing arrows or treating specific wounds.
The healers had a rich pharmacopeia of local plants at their disposal. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) was applied to wounds for its astringent and antimicrobial properties. Juniper berries, bog myrtle, garlic, and various mosses were used for their antiseptic qualities. Peat moss (Sphagnum) appears to have been used for dressing wounds, a practice that persisted in Scandinavia for centuries.
Dental caries (cavities) were relatively uncommon, whereas periodontal disease was prevalent. Additionally, infectious diseases were widespread due to crowded living conditions, limited sanitation, and frequent contact with animals. Skeletal evidence suggests that tuberculosis, leprosy, and osteomyelitis (bone infections) were common. Analysis of latrine deposits reveals eggs of intestinal worms, including whipworm and roundworm.
Viking skeletal remains show healed fractures, sword cuts, and blunt-force injuries, consistent with warfare and violence. Many injuries healed, and serious trauma was sometimes survived. Surgical intervention was rudimentary. Trepanation, the drilling or scraping of a hole into the skull, has been identified in a few cases. More often, wounds were cleaned and bandaged. Broken bones were set with reasonable success. Evidence of well-healed fractures suggests a basic understanding of immobilization. One of the most intriguing practices described in saga literature was diagnosing internal wounds by feeding a patient a strong-smelling broth and then smelling the wound—if the odor emerged, it indicated a perforation.
The Vikings valued personal hygiene. Archaeological findings include combs, tweezers, ear spoons, and even evidence of regular bathing and grooming. But waste disposal would have been relatively primitive, and water sources could become contaminated.
Mental health in Viking society is also studied through literary and biological evidence. The berserker phenomenon involved warriors in a trance-like fury. This could be ritual behavior, psychological conditioning, or a sign of neurological or psychiatric issues. Some scholars link it to the use of substances such as psychoactive mushrooms.
To the Vikings, disease could be sent by malevolent spirits, elves, or gods. Treatment often included charms, runes, rituals, and physical remedies. Spoken incantations were meant to aid healing, and the boundary between herbalism and magic was often blurry. Their principal god Odin was associated with medicinal knowledge. It was believed he knew eighteen charms, some of which could heal the sick and raise the dead.
In general, life expectancy in the Viking Age was low. Most men died in their 30s or 40s, though some lived into their 50s or beyond. Women faced pregnancy and childbirth risks. People died mostly from infectious diseases, violence, and accidents. The Vikings lived in a harsh environment of constant exposure to infection, trauma, and poor public health. However, numerous individuals appear to have reached a respectable age and, relative to contemporaneous populations, experienced rather good health.