Humans began to introduce harmful lead into their bodies thousands of years ago, causing symptoms that the Greek philosopher Nikander of Colophon recognized around 2000 BC. The lead entered the body through pipes, paints, gasoline, and countless other applications and was distributed by the bloodstream to the brain, kidneys, liver, and bones. Stored in bones and teeth for decades, it could then be released into the circulation, particularly at times of physiological stress such as during pregnancy or illnesses.

Lead interferes with the action of enzymes, the release neurotransmitters, and the synthesis of heme. Children are particularly vulnerable because they absorb lead more readily and can sustain irreversible neurological damage leading to learning disabilities, reduced IQ, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, behavioral problems, and developmental delay. High blood lead levels can cause anemia, kidney damage, muscle weakness, and seizures. Pregnant women experience an increased risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, and premature birth. In adults, chronic low-level exposure can contribute to hypertension, cardiovascular disease, kidney dysfunction, reproductive problems, and neurological symptoms such as memory loss, mood disorders, and peripheral neuropathy.

In ancient Rome the widespread use of lead in water pipes, food, and cosmetics, led to chronic lead poisoning and saturnine gout. Romans used lead extensively in their plumbing systems—”plumbing” derives from the Latin “plumbum,” meaning lead. Aristocrats consumed wine from lead-glazed vessels and even added lead acetate, known as “sugar of lead,” as a sweetener. Ancient physicians such as Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder observed that lead could cause colic, pallor, and paralysis. Modern researchers such as Jerome Nriagu have suggested that lead poisoning may have contributed to the decline and fall of the Roman Empire and that two-thirds of emperors, including Claudius, Caligula, and Nero indeed suffered from it.

The Middle Ages saw the continued use of lead in glazes, pewter, and cosmetics. Lead-based face powders were popular among European nobility, contributing to fashionable pale complexions while slowly poisoning their users. By the Renaissance, lead poisoning from contaminated wine became common in Europe, and the Industrial Revolution marked a dramatic escalation in lead exposure. The widespread use of lead in glazes for ceramics led to a phenomenon known as “Devonshire colic” in 17th- and 18th-century England, linked to lead-tainted cider. In 1767, the English physician George Baker correctly identified the role of lead in this epidemic, marking one of the earliest scientifically reasoned associations between environmental exposure and chronic illness.

The 19th century brought lead-based paints into homes across the developed world. These paints were prized for their durability and vibrant colors, particularly the bright white carbonate paint that adorned countless walls. Lead pipes became standard in urban water systems, and lead-glazed pottery remained common in kitchens. By the late 1800s, medical professionals had begun to refer to “plumbism” or “saturnism,” referencing Saturn, the Roman god associated with lead. In 1839 the French physician Louis Tanquerel des Planches published one of the first comprehensive clinical studies on lead poisoning, based on hundreds of cases in Paris.

In modern times, lead poisoning reached epidemic proportions. It was recognized as a public health problem in the early 1900s in Queensland, Australia, where children chewed the flakes of paint coming off the white colonial houses and developed chronic renal failure, leading to the banning of lead paint as early as 1904. Elsewhere, billions of tons of lead were dispersed into the atmosphere through automobile exhausts, contaminating soil, water, and air. In 1921, General Motors began adding tetraethyl lead to gasoline, which became standard worldwide. For the following six decades, the lead industry fought all regulations, and it was not until the end of the century that leaded gasoline began to be phased out and lead-containing products banned.

Lead poisoning remains a concern in many developing countries that still use leaded gasoline, lead-based paints, and lead-glazed pottery. Some traditional medicines, cosmetics, and spices continue to contain dangerous lead levels. The World Health Organization estimates that lead exposure accounts for over 600,000 deaths annually worldwide, and the rise in violent crime rates, aggression, and antisocial behavior in many countries has been linked to the introduction of leaded gasoline. The history of lead poisoning serves as a reminder of how substances once considered safe can be dangerous and underscores the importance of safety testing and protecting the public in an increasingly complex world.